Residential Schools in Canada

Harkiran Kullar and Sahiba Dhaliwal

The residential school system was one of the most impactful and damaging policies implemented by the Canadian government against Indigenous peoples. For over a century, indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in various boarding schools. These schools were funded by the government and primarily operated by Christian churches. While the government framed the system as an institution to provide advancements in education and social opportunity, its underlying objective was assimilation. This deliberately disrupted indigenous cultures, languages, and identities to integrate children into a colonised society. During this time, residential schools often abused, neglected, and severely emotionally harmed the children of many families, which still shapes the indigenous community today. By recognizing the extent and intent of this system, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission [1] has characterized residential schools as a form of cultural genocide. This paper examines the historical foundations of the residential school systems, their lasting impacts, and efforts taken by the Canadian government towards reconciliation. 

Residential schools in Canada operated as a system of boarding institutions in which Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their homes and placed in schools funded by the federal government. The children enrolled in these schools were primarily from First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities, and the institutions themselves were administered by Christian churches.[2] The residential school system existed from the early 19th century through the late 20th century. The federal government was crucial in expanding the system and requiring attendance at this time. At its peak, over 150,000 Indigenous students were enrolled in hundreds of schools across Canada.[3] By the early twentieth century, attendance was compulsory for many Indigenous children under the Indian Act.[4] 

  The establishment of these schools formed part of a broader colonial project. Government officials and church authorities regarded Indigenous cultures and ways of life as barriers to building a Canadian society. They believed that Indigenous children needed to be assimilated into European-based social and cultural norms.[5] As a result, students were forced to abandon their languages, spiritual beliefs, and cultural practices in favour of Christianity and European Canadian values. To reshape Indigenous communities so they conform to European Canadian social, cultural, and political standards, Canada's colonialism purposefully established the residential school system. To maintain control over land and population, government and religious leaders saw Indigenous cultures as incompatible with the emerging Canadian government and felt that assimilation was required.[6]  It was believed that education was an essential tool for this change. The government attempted to prevent Indigenous languages, customs, and knowledge from being passed down through the generations by taking children away from their families and communities.[7] Residential schools were intended to replace Indigenous beliefs with Christian teachings and European values, not to promote Indigenous education. This system reflected a more general belief that integration was both desired and inevitable, and that Indigenous traditions would inevitably vanish. Residential schools were the result of intentional policy decisions meant to destroy Indigenous traditions and integrate Indigenous peoples into colonial culture on unjust conditions, as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission later recognized.[8]

The residential school system had serious, long-lasting and detrimental effects. Neglect, abuse, harsh discipline, and extended separation from their homes caused emotional, physical, and psychological harm to many children. These events caused serious trauma, mental health challenges, and a disrupted sense of self for many survivors[9] Residential schools had an immense negative cultural and social impact on indigenous communities. The suppression of Indigenous languages, spiritual practices, and traditions interrupted the tradition to pass down these cultural traits. Many survivors returned home without strong cultural or familial connections, contributing to broken family relationships and intergenerational trauma that continues to affect Indigenous communities today.[10]

Residential schools in Canada did not end suddenly. The popularity of the schools slowly declined as the public became more aware of the harm that was taking place in these schools. Indigenous communities, activities and advocacy groups started to speak out about the abuse and assimilation of the culture that was happening within residential schools. As communities became more aware, the Canadian government gradually started to reconsider some of its policies towards Indigenous peoples. 

A very significant change which occurred was the amendments the government made to the Indian Act in 1951. The amendments introduced the process for Indigenous children to start attending provincial public schools instead of residential ones.[11] Although the amendments were made, and the process to move away from residential schools had started, there were still discrepancies. Various residential schools across the country continued to operate for many years after the 1951 changes. The last school, Gordon Indian Residential School in Saskatchewan, did not close until 1996.[12] The long delay between the amendments in the Act and the final closure shows how deeply rooted the schooling system was in Canada.

The closure of residential schools did not stop the process of children being removed from their homes and families. For many years after the closure of the schools, Indigenous children were removed from their homes and put into non-Indigenous foster families. This practice of removing children was known as the Sixties Scoop, where children were still being removed with the goal of assimilation and deculturalization. [13]

In 2006, the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (IRSSA) was approved and officially implemented in 2007. This agreement was monumental in acknowledging the harm caused by the school system and in providing compensation to the survivors. The Government of Canada described the agreement as a joint resolution reached between former students, churches, Indigenous organizations, and the federal government to provide a fair and lasting response to the legacy of residential schools.[14] The settlement addressed both the financial and emotional harm which was experienced by the survivors of the school. The agreement contained many aspects, one of which was the Common Experience Payment, which provided lump compensation for students who were a part of residential schools and suffered harm from the system. Survivors who suffered sexual or physical abuse were able to apply for additional compensation under the Independent Assessment Process. The formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was a part of the settlement, which was responsible for the education of the public, gathering stories from survivors of the schools and moving Canada toward a path of reconciliation. [15]

In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a formal apology on behalf of the Canadian government to survivors of residential schools. He acknowledged that the main purpose of the residential schools was to separate children from their families and therefore, remove them from their language and culture as well. He recognized that long term emotional, social and cultural harm that was caused by these policies continues to affect the Indigenous community today.[16] The Truth and Reconciliation Commission played a big role in bringing attention to the experiences of survivors. After collecting thousands of personal testimonies and reviewing historical records, the Commission released its Final Report in 2015. The report identified residential schools as a form of cultural genocide and introduced 94 Calls to Action, which outlined steps Canada should take to repair relationships with Indigenous peoples and address the lasting effects of residential schools.[17] 

Despite the efforts made by the Canadian government to reconcile the impact of residential schools, they are still felt by survivors and their communities today. The communities are dealing with intergenerational trauma, loss of cultural knowledge, cultural practices and their language because of these schools. The settlement agreement, the public apology by the Prime Minister and the creation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission have created a pathway towards reconciliation, but it is an ongoing collaborative process and requires a tangible change and not just symbolic measures.

[1] National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, ‘Residential School History’ (NCTR Teaching Resources) https://nctr.ca/education/teaching-resources/residential-school-history/ accessed 05 February 2026.

[2] Parks Canada, ‘The Residential School System National Historic Event’ https://parks.canada.ca/culture/designation/evenement-event/sys-pensionnats-residential-school-sys\ accessed 05 February 2026.

[3]Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada, ‘History of Residential Schools’ https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/article/history-of-residential-schools/\  accessed 09 February 2026.

[4] J R Miller, ‘Residential Schools’ The Canadian Encyclopedia (last edited 15 December 2023) https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/residential-schools\  accessed 09 February 2026.

[5] Parks Canada (n 2).

[6] Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada (n 3).

[7] National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (n 1).

[8] Ibid.

[9] Antonio Voce, Leyland Cecco and Chris Michael, ‘“Cultural genocide”: the shameful history of Canada’s residential schools – mapped’ The Guardian (6 September 2021) https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2021/sep/06/canada-residential-schools-indigenous-children-cultural-genocide-map\  accessed 09 February 2026.

[10] Miller, ‘Residential Schools’ (n 4)

[11] Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, ‘Timeline – Indian Residential Schools’ (Government of Canada) https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1332939430258/1571587651162\ accessed 6 February 2026.

[12] Ibid.

[13] University of British Columbia, Indigenous Foundations, ‘The Residential School System’ https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_residential_school_system/\  accessed 6 February 2026.

[14] Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, ‘Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement’ (Government of Canada) https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100015576/1571581687074\  accessed 6 February 2026.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, ‘Statement of Apology to Former Students of Indian Residential Schools’ (Government of Canada, 2008) https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100015576/1571581687074\  accessed 11 February 2026.

[17] National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, ‘Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action’ https://nctr.ca/about/history-of-the-trc/truth-and-reconciliation-commission-of-canada-calls-to-action/\ accessed 11 February 2026.